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PRINCETON,  N.  J.  & 


Division. 
Section .... 


THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA 


[    OUTLINE    SKETCH  X  ?/>, 

*     NOV  9  1910 


V 


J.   PRESTON  SEARLE,  D.D. 

JAMES   SUYDAM    PROFESSOR  OF  SYSTEMATIC  THEOLOGY  IN 

THE  THEOLOGICAL   SEMINARY  OF  THE   REFORMED 

CHURCH   AT    NEW   BRUNSWICK 


PRINTED  FOR  THE    SEMINARY    BY 
THE     REV.     ARCHIBALD     LAIDLIE,     D.D.,     MEMORIAL     FUND. 

1907 


Chapter  I. 
Introductory  Definitions  and  Divisions. 

1.  What  is  Encyclopedia? 

Encyclopedia  (instruction  in  a  circle,  or  a  circle  of 
sciences)  is  an  arrangement  of  the  sciences  and  knowl- 
edges of  men  in  order. 

Note.  Real-encyclopedia  is  distinguished  from  en- 
cyclopedia by  its  use  of  the  alphabetic  order.  It  is  the 
dictionary. 

2.  What  is  Theology? 

Theology  is  the  science  of  that  which  may  be  known 
of  God. 

Theology  is  the  science  of  that  which  may  be  known 
of  God,  including  His  Being,  attributes,  and  the  mutual 
relations  of  Himself  and  His  creatures,  as  He  has 
manifested  Himself  in  Creation,  Providence,  and  Re- 
demption. 

Theology  is  the  orderly  statement  of  the  sum  of  our 
knowledge  of  God  and  of  His  relations. 

3.  What  is  Theological  Encyclopedia? 

Theological  encyclopedia  is  a  department  of  universal 
encyclopedia,  and  as  this  latter  exhibits  the  contents  of 
knowledge  generally,  so  does  the  former  exhibit  the 
contents  of  theological  knowledge.     (Hagenbach,  p.  I.) 

Theological  encyclopedia  is  a  general  introduction  to 


4  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

all  the  divisions  of  theology,  together  with  an  account 
of  all  the  relations  between  them.  (Strong,  p.  22.) 

Encyclopedia  of  theology  is  that  branch  of  the  theo- 
logical science  itself,  which  presents  a  summary  view 
of  what  is  embraced  in  theological  knowledge.  It  ex- 
plains the  inner  organization  of  the  science  of  theology, 
and  maps  out  its  divisions  as  a  grand  whole,  and  shows 
them  in  their  relations  to  one  another.  Its  design  is 
not  so  much  to  teach  theology,  as  to  show  where  you 
find  theology  taught.  (Weidner,  p.  1.) 

Theological  encyclopedia  is  a  survey  of  all  the  de- 
partments of  theology,  with  a  statement  of  what  has 
been  accomplished  in  each.      (Crooks  and  Hurst,  p.  7.) 

Theological  encyclopedia  is  an  account  or  outline  of 
the  different  branches  of  theology  in  their  organic  rela- 
tions and  connections. 

4.  What  is  Methodology? 

Methodology  is  applied  encyclopedia. 
Methodology   is    the   scientific  plan   of   investigating 
any  department  of  knowledge. 

5.  What  are  the  aims  of  Methodology? 

To  furnish  a  plan  of  study,  based  on  the  relation  of 
the  topics  to  be  considered ;  and  to  indicate  the  names 
of  the  best  books  and  aids  of  all  kinds. 

Note.  For  illustrations  of  practical  methodology  in 
connection  with  Theology,  see  Dr.  Woodbridge's  An- 
alysis of  Theology,  p.  3,  or  Strong's  Systematic 
Theology,  p.  27. 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  0 

6.    Give  an  outline  of  the  History  of  Theological  Ency- 
clopedia. 

As  a  well  defined  science,  theological  encyclopedia  is 
modern.  We  find  its  beginnings  however  as  early  as 
the  fourth  century,  in  the  writings  of  Chrysostom  and 
Augustine.  It  was  but  slightly  developed  previous  to 
the  Reformation,  in  the  form  of  introductions  to  the 
study  of  the  Scriptures,  or  as  fragments  of  crude  at- 
tempts at  making  a  general  encyclopedia. 

In  the  Reformation  period,  Erasmus ;  from  the  Luth- 
erans, Melancthon  ;  and  from  the  Reformed,  Bullinger, 
gave  a  new  impulse  to  the  science.  In  the  latter  half 
of  the  sixteenth  century,  Andreas  Gerhard,  professor 
at  Marburg,  brought  about  a  distinct  advance  in  the 
classification  of  the  subject  matter  of  the  science.  The 
name,  now  universally  applied  to  it,  was  first  used  in 
the  latter  half  of  the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  first 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century,  a  new  era  was  intro- 
duced by  Schleiermacher.  In  1833,  Hagenbach  issued 
a  work  which  has  maintained  itself  ever  since  as  a 
most  useful  manual  on  the  subject,  although  Harless, 
Pelt,  Rabinger  and  Zoeckler  among  the  Germans, 
Doedes  among  the  Dutch,  Kienlen  in  France,  and  Reu- 
terdahl  of  Sweden,  have  produced  books  exhibiting 
features  of  special  value.  A  very  recent  continental 
writer  is  Dr.  Kuypef  of  Holland. 

The  history  of  theological  encyclopedia  in  our  own 
language  is  exceedingly  brief,  and  will  be  embodied  in 
the  answer  immediately  following  this  one. 


b  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

7.  Give  the  names  of  some  English  writers  on  Ency- 

clopedia and  Methodology. 

a.  Among  the  earlier  writers  are : 

Marsh,  Lectures  on  the  Systematic  Arrangement  of 
the  Science  of  Divinity. 

Bickersteth,  The  Christian  Student. 
Williams,  The  Christian  Teacher. 

Note.  These  treat  of  this  department  jf  theological 
literature  partially  or  incidentally. 

b.  Among  modern  writers  are : 
Crooks  and  Hurst. 
Weidner. 

McClintock     (Incomplete.) 

Schaff. 

Drummond. 

Cave. 

Note.  All  these  modern  writers  excepting  the  last 
three  are  based  on  Hagenbach.  The  Propaedeutic  of 
Schaff  is  an  independent  and  valuable  work. 

8.  What  is  Religion? 

(Derived  by  some  from  relego,  I  read  again,  I  pon- 
der carefully ;  hence  the  careful  pondering  of  divine 
things,  reverence  for  God.  By  others,  derived  from 
religo.  I  bind  back.) 

Its  meaning  in  theology,  is  the  obligation  to  serve 
God.     It  includes  two  parts  : 

i.  Objectively.  The  claims  of  God,  arising  from 
His  nature,  and  from  the  mutual  relations  of  Himself 
and  His  creatures,  and  manifested  to  men  in  His 
works,  laws,  etc. 


THE0L0GTCAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  7 

2.  Subjectively.  The  recognitions  of  these  claims  by 
men,  implying  knowledge,  and  the  disposition  to  fulfil 
the  obligations  these  claims  create. 

(Woodbridge,  p.  18.) 

Religion  is  the  personal  communion  of  man  with  the 
object  of  his  worship,  in  the  relations  of  dependence, 
veneration,  and  accountability. 

It  is  in  general  (on  the  subjective  side),  man's  at- 
tempt to  restore,  at  least  in  part,  the  original  and  lost 
relation  between  God  and  man,  to  bind  back  his  soul 
unto  God.  It  is  made  thus  in  the  spheres  of  the  intel- 
lect, the  emotions,  and  the  will. 

9.  What  is  the  Christian  Religion? 

It  is  the  fruitage  of  a  divine  purpose,  fully  to  restore 
the  original  and  lost  relation  between  God  and  man. 
It  is  a  monotheistic  religion,  the  distinctive  element  of 
which  is  redemption  from  sin  through  a  divine-human 
mediator. 

10.  What   are   the   advantages    of   the   study    of   the 

Non-Christian  religions  ? 

We  gain  proof  of  the  universal  religious  instinct ; 
learn  how  best  to  offer  Christianity  to  their  adher- 
ents ;  and  by  comparing  them  with  Christianity,  we 
gain  abundant  proof  of  its  superhuman  character  and 
infinite  superiority  in   its  adaptedness  to  human  needs. 

Note.     The    study    of    Comparative    Religion    is    a 
modern  science. 


THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  \) 

15.  What  was  Schleiermacher's  division  of  Theology? 

1.  Philosophical,  embracing — 

i.     Apologetics.      (Christianity  defended  against  all 
other  systems.) 

2.  Polemics.      (One  system  of   Christian  faith   de- 
fended against  all  other  Christian  systems.) 

IT.     Historical,  embracing — 

i.     Exegetics.     (The  knowledge  of  Primitive  Chris- 
tianity.) 

2.  Church  History.     (The  earthly  career  of  Chris- 
tianity.) 

3.  The  present  state  of  Christianity, 

a.  As  to  doctrine  and  dogmatic  theology. 

b.  As  to  extension  and  church  statistics. 

TIL     Practical,  embracing — 

1.  Church   Service.     This   includes   Liturgy,   Wor- 
ship, Homiletics,  and  Pastoral  Care. 

2.  Church  Government, 

a.  As  to  internal  relations. 

b.  As  to  external  relations. 

16.  What  is  the  division  of  Theology  usually  adopted? 
I.     Exegetical  Theology. 

IT.     Historical  Theology. 

III.  Systematic  Theology. 

IV.  Practical  Theology. 

Note.  These  divisions,  it  must  be  remembered,  are 
only  relative,  for  in  every  department  of  theological 
study,  all  the  others  are  involved. 


Chapter  II. 

EXEGETICAL   THEOLOGY. 

17.  What  is  Exegetical  Theology? 

Exegetical  Theology  is  that  branch  of  theology 
which  treats  of  the  explanation  and  interpretation  of 
the  Holy  Scriptures.  It  therefore  includes  exegesis 
itself,  and  the  auxiliary  sciences  which  aid  this  exegesis 
or  its  application. 

18.  What  are  its  results? 

Its  results  appear  in  Biblical  theology,  which  will  be 
defined  later.     (See  question  59.) 

19.  What  are  the  sciences   directly  auxiliary  to  Exe- 

getical Theology? 

1.  Biblical  Philology. 

2.  Biblical  Archeology. 

3.  Biblical  Introduction,  General  and  Special,  in- 
cluding Biblical  Criticism,  Textual  or  Lower,  and  His- 
torical  and  Literary,  or  Higher. 

4.  Biblical  Hermeneutics,  including  hermeneutics 
proper,  and  exegesis. 

20.  What  is  Biblical  Philology? 

Biblical  Philology  is  the  study  of  the  original  lan- 
guages of  the  Holy  Scriptures:  viz.,  Hebrew,  and  Ara- 
maic, with  the.  cognate  languages,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Ethi- 
opic,  and  Assyrian,  in  the  Old  Testament :  and  in  the 
New    Testament,   the   contemporaneous   popular   Greek 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  11 

of  inscriptions  and  papyri,  the  Hellenistic  and  the  Cog- 
nate, Classical  Greek. 

21.    What  is  Biblical  Archeology? 

It   is   the  science  of  sacred  things,  as  over  against 
sacred  words.    It  includes  : 

1.  Scriptural  Epigraphy. 

II.  Scriptural  Geography, 
i.     Political. 

2.  Physical. 

a.  Topography. 

b.  Geology. 

c.  Flora  and  Fauna. 

III.  Scriptural  Ethnography. 
i.     Laws. 

2.  Usages. 

3.  Employments,  especially  agriculture. 

4.  Worship. 

5.  Government. 

6.  Literature.  „ 

22.  What  is  Biblical  Introduction?    (Isagogics.) 

It  treats  of  the  origin  and  history  of  the  canon,  and 
the  text,  both  as  a  whole,  and  in  their  separate  parts. 
It  is  divided  into  Old  Testament  Introduction  and  New 
Testament  Introduction,  or  into  General  and  Special 
Introduction. 

23.  Of  what  does  General  Introduction  treat? 

1.  Of  the  Canon  in  its  origin,  extent,  arrangement, 
and  preservation. 


12  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2.  Of  the  Text  in  its  languages,  manuscripts,  ver- 
sions, and  critical  editions. 

24.  Of  what  does  Special  Introduction  treat  ? 

It  inquires  into  the  authenticity,  integrity,  and  pres- 
ervation of  the  individual  books,  and  in  addition,  deals 
with  the  history  of  their  authors,  the  design,  plan, 
form,  and  style  of  their  works,  and  with  the  date,  place, 
and  circumstances  of  their  composition. 

25.  What  is  the  Canon  of  Scripture? 

It  is  a  collection  of  documents  relating  to  religion 
and  its  history,  dating  from  different  periods,  and 
written  by  different  authors,  given  of  God,  and  there- 
fore authoritative,  for  the  enlightenment  and  direction 
of  Christian  faith  and  life ;  and  thus  distinguished  from 
the  Apocrypha  and  all  other  human  writings. 

26.  What  are  the  Canonical  Books  of  the  Old  Testa- 

ment? 

27.  When  was  the  Canon  of  the  Old  Testament  com- 

pleted ? 

The  completed  canon  of  the  Old  Testament  appears, 
for  the  first  time,  after  the  captivity.  The  traditional 
view  is  that  Ezra  (Middle  5th  Cent.  B.  C.)  and  Nehe- 
miah  took  measures  for  collecting  the  different  books. 
This  tradition  is  derived  from  Josephus.  It  is  doubted, 
but  has  not  as  yet  been  disproved  by  modern  criticism. 

28.  What   is  the  History   of  the   Canon   0  f  the  New 

Testament  ? 

The  earliest  constituents  of  this  in  point  of  composi- 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  13 

tion  were  the  Epistle  of  James  and  the  Pauline  epistles, 
those  to  the  Thessalonians  being  the  oldest.  To  these 
were  gradually  added  the  gospels  and  the  catholic  epis- 
tles. Their  formal,  general  recognition  as  part  of  the 
canon  was  not  coincident  with  their  production  or  even 
parallel  with  it.  The  Gospels,  the  Book  of  Acts,  and 
the  Pauline  Epistles  were  first  regarded  as  canonical. 
Opinion  was  long  divided  as  to  the  canonicity  of  the 
Apocalypse,  some  of  the  catholic  epistles  and  a  few  of 
the  New  Testament  Apocrypha  (e.  g.,  The  Shepherd 
of  Hermas  and  the  Epistle  of  Barnabas).  The  canon 
was  gradually  formed  by  a  concensus  of  scholarly  and 
devout  opinion  finding  expression  in  the  action  of  coun- 
cils. (The  last,  Carthage,  397  A.  D.)  The  religious 
disposition  recognizes  its  formation  as  providential, 
though  not  necessarily  miraculous. 

29.  What  are  the  Canonical  Books  of  the  New  Testa- 

ment? 

30.  What  is  to  be  said  of  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha  ? 
These  books  are  fourteen  in  number.     Eleven  were 

pronounced  canonical  by  the  Romish  Council  of  Trent 
(1546).  They  are  of  value  for  their  intrinsic  beauty 
and  excellence,  and  the  light  they  throw  upon  the  inter- 
pretation of  the  Old  Testament  prevailing  in  the  Jewish 
church  in  the  era  before  Christ. 

31.  Why  are  these  Books  held  to  be  Apocryphal  by 

Protestant  Christianity  ? 
Because    they    never    were    regarded    by   the   Jewish 
church   as   belonging   to  the   sacred   books,    and  hence 
were  not  a   part  of  the  Old   Testament   Scripture  to 


14  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

which  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  gave  his  endorsement. 
Moreover,  they  do  not  claim  to  be  inspired  and  were 
written  after  the  cessation  of  prophecy. 

32.  Why  must  the   Old  Testament  be  studied  by  the 

New  Testament  believer? 

i.  Because  the  monotheistic  principle,  and  plan  of 
salvation  of  Christianity  are  grounded  in  the  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

2.  Because  modes  of  thought  and  expression  in  the 
Old  Testament  furnish  the  only  means  of  comprehend- 
ing the  New. 

3.  Because  the  Old  Testament  contains  large  por- 
tions, having  immediate  and  didactic  value  for  all 
Christians,  and  possesses  all  the  authority  of  divine 
revelation. 

4.  Because  of  the  unity  of  the  two  Testaments  in 
divers  developments.  There  is  in  both  an  indissoluble 
web  of  prophecy  and  fulfilment,  of  substance  and 
shadow,  that  makes  it  impossible  to  separate  the  two. 
Augustine  says,  "In  veteri  Testamento,  novum  latet ; 
in  novo  Testamento,  vet  us  patet." 

33.  Name  some  Points  of  Difference  between  the  Old 

and  New  Testaments. 

1.  In  respect  to  the  periods  of  time  covered  in  their 
production.  The  one  embraces  many  centuries ;  the 
other,  a  single  generation. 

2.  Their  difference  in  scope.  The  one  is  historical 
largely,  embracing  many  peoples ;  the  other,  only 
slightly  so,  and  relating  chiefly  on  the  one  hand  to  a 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  15 

single  personality,  God  manifest  in  the  flesh,  and  on  the 
other,  to  the  inner  man,  his  capacity  and  needs,  his 
subjection  to  sin,  and  his  deliverance. 

3.  The  one  refers  to  a  single  nation ;  the  other,  to  the 
establishment  of  a  kingdom  among  the  whole  human 
race. 

34.  What  are  the  Divisions  of  the  Contents  of  the  Old 

Testament  frequently  met  with? 

I.  The  Hebrew  Division. 

A.  The  Law :  the  five  books  of  Moses. 

B.  The  Prophets. 

1.  The  Former  Prophets:  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel, 
Kings.  I 

2.  The  Latter  Prophets :  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
the  Twelve. 

C.  The  Kethubhim   (Hagiographa). 

1.  Great  Poetical  Books:  Psalms,  Proverbs,  Job. 

2.  Meghilloth :  Song,  Ruth,  Lamentations,  Ecclesi- 
astes,  Esther. 

3.  Remaining  Historical  Books :  Daniel,  Ezra,  Nehe- 
miah,   Chronicles. 

II.  The  Septuagint  Division.  (Followed  in  English 
Bibles.) 

1.  Historical  Books:  Genesis-Esther. 

2.  Poetical  Books :  Job-Song. 

3.  Prophetical  Books :  Isaiah-Malachi. 

35.  Why  is  a  Knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  indispensable 

to  the  Exegetical  Study  of  the  New  Testament 
as  well  as  of  the  Old? 

1.  The  quotations    from  the  Old  Testament   in  the 


It)  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

New,  can  only  be  properly  understood  when  compared 
with  the  original. 

2.  The  New  Testament  is  full  of  Hebraisms,  as 
to  words,  constructions,  and  metaphors.         y 

36.  What  is  the  Language  of  the  New  Testament,  and 

what  are  its  Elements? 

The  popular  Greek  of  the  day,  found  in  papyri  and 
inscriptions,  and  Hellenistic  Greek,  a  dialect  employed 
by  the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  by  Josephus,  Philo,  the 
writers  of  the  Old  Testament  Apocrypha,  and  the  Sep- 
tuagint  translators.  Its  elements  are  Greek,  Jewish, 
and  in  the  New  Testament,  Christian. 

Note.     The    relative    proportion    of    these    elements 
differs  with  different  authors. 

37.  What  is  Textual  or  Lower  Criticism? 

It  is  that  critical  process  which  seeks  to  approximate 
the  original  autograph  by  the  comparison  of  manu- 
scripts, versions,  and  quotations.  It  thus  seeks  to  re- 
store the  very  words  of  the  sacred  writers. 

38.  What  is  Historical  or  Higher  Criticism? 

It  is  that  critical  process  which  seeks  to  determine 
the  date,  authorship,  integrity,  purpose,  and  credibility 
of  individual  books  or  parts  of  books  by  the  examina- 
tion of  the  books  themselves  and  contemporary  litera- 
ture. (Raven.) 

"It  is  the  discovery  and  verification  of  the  facts  re- 
garding the  origin,  form  and  value  of  literary  produc- 
tions upon  the  basis  of  their  internal  characteristics  and 
contents."  (Zenos.) 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  17 

39.    Give  an  Outline  of  the  History  of  Criticism  to  the 
middle  of  the  17th  Century. 

First  Period,  the  Patristic. 

The  text  of  the  Old  Testament  engaged  the  attention 
of  the  Massoretes,  Jewish  scholars,  whose  principal 
school  flourished  at  Tiberias  in  the  beginning  of  the 
sixth  century.  They  compared  the  codices,  noted  the 
various  readings  (Keri  and  Kethibh),  and  even  num- 
bered the  words  and  syllables.  To  them  we  owe  the 
vowel  signs,  accents,  and  other  pointings. 

Origen  (185-254),  among  Christians,  first  did  critical 
work.  He  compared  the  Greek  versions  of  the  Septua- 
gint,  of  Aquila,  Theodotion,  and  Symmachus,  with  the 
original  Hebrew. 

Jerome  (340-420)  improved  the  existing  Latin  ver- 
sion, and  published  one  of  his  own,  the  Vulgate,  which 
became  the  authoritative  version  of  the  Western 
Church. 

The  New  Testament  was  gradually  collected  in  this 
period.  The  originals  are  no  longer  extant.  The  earli- 
est manuscripts  date  from  the  fourth  century  only.  The 
copies  made  for  the  use  of  the  church  were  too  fre- 
quently made  without  critical  care. 

Second  Period,  the  Medieval. 

But  little  was  done  for  criticism  during  this  period. 
Alcuin  (802)  improved  the  Vulgate  by  command  of 
Charlemagne. 

In  the  thirteenth  century.  Cardinal  Hugo  de  St.  Caro 
divided  the  whole  Bible  into  chapters.  (The  division 
of  the  Old  Testament  into  verses  was  the  work  of  much 
earlier  Jewish  writers.) 

5 


18  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Third  Period,  from  the  Reformation. 

The  New  Testament  was  divided  into  verses  by  Rob- 
ert Stephanus  in  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  Complutensian  Polyglot  (1522),  followed  by 
those  of  Antwerp  (,1572),  Paris  (1645),  and  London 
(1656),  critical  collocations  of  the  text  and  versions, 
added  new  and  rich  facilities  for  critical  study. 

Erasmus  (1467-1536)  issued  the  first  critical  edition 
of  the  New  Testament. 

Although  the  Reformation  awakened  a  spirit  of  gen- 
eral inquiry,  the  fundamental  Reformation  principle  of 
the  supreme  authority  of  the  Scriptures  had  a  tendency 
to  check  the  development  of  criticism. 

From  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century  the  his- 
tory of  the  Lower  and  that  of  the  Higher  Criticism 
become  distinct,  and  will  be  separately  traced  in  the 
answers  to  the  following  questions. 

40.  Give  an  Outline  of  the  History  of  the  Lower  or 
Textual  Criticism  since  the  middle  of  the  17th 
Century 

I.  Of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  publication  of  the  polyglots  furnished  the  ma- 
terial for  textual  criticism.  In  the  following  period 
several  critical  editions  were  published  containing 
readings  collected  from  many  manuscripts.  The  best 
are  those  of  Athias  (Amsterdam  166 1-7),  Vander 
Hooght  (Amsterdam  1705),  Houbigant  (Paris  1753), 
and  Kennicott  (Oxford  1776-80).  De  Rossi  published 
his  Variae  Lectiones  separately  (Parma  1784).  The 
best  recent  editions  are  those   of  Hahn,   Theile,    Baer 


THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  19 

and  Delitzsch,  and  Ginsburg,  all  of  which  are  based 
upon  that  of  Vander  Hooght.  A  careful  examination 
of  many  hundred  manuscripts  shows  them  to  conform 
in  the  main  to  a  common  original  called  the  Massoretic 
Text  which  was  fixed  even  before  the  Massoretes.  Old 
Testament  manuscripts  are  not  so  numerous  nor  so  old 
as  those  of  the  New  Testament,  but  exhibit  far  fewer 
variations.  Quotations  from  the  Fathers  and  three  of 
the  ancient  versions,  the  Vulgate,  the  Peshitta  and  the 
Targums  give  back  substantially  the  same  text.  The 
Septuagint  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  however, 
differ  considerably.  John  Morinus  (died  1659),  and 
many  since  his  day  have  elevated  the  Septuagint  and 
the  Samaritan  Pentateuch  above  the  Massoretic  Text, 
but  the  care  with  which  the  original  has  been  preserved 
and  the  corruption  of  the  Septuagint  and  Samaritan 
text  make  this  method  unscientific.  Certain  recent 
writers  have  attempted  a  reconstruction  of  the  text  to 
make  it  conform  to  a  certain  metrical  or  strophical 
structure,  and  many  commentators  arbitrarily  alter  the 
text  to  assist  in  its  interpretation.  Such  processes  are 
too  subjective  to  be  reliable.  (Raven.) 

II.  Of  the  New  Testament. 

In  1633  the  Elzevirs  of  Leyden  published  a  text  of 
the  New  Testament  based  on  a  few  late  manuscripts 
which  they  called  the  Te.vtus  Receptus,  practically  our 
Authorized  Version. 

Dr.  John  Mill  (1707)  collected  and  collated  manu- 
scripts, ancient  and  modern,  some  of  them  differing 
widely   from   this   so-called    Te.vtus  Receptus.      Bengel 


20  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

(1687-1752)  classified  the  authorities  into  two  groups, 
the  ancient,  which  were  few  in  number,  and  the  later, 
which  constituted  the  bulk  of  authorities  and  corre- 
sponded to  the  Textus  Receptus.  Griesbach  C 1745- 
1812)  subdivided  Bengel's  single  ancient  group  into 
two,  making  three  in  all. 

Lachmann  (1 793-1 851)  broke  with  the  Textus  Re- 
ceptus altogether.  He  printed,  without  giving  attention 
to  groups,  what  he  thought  the  most  ancient  text 
attainable.  Tischendorf  ( 181 5-1874),  the  greatest  dis- 
coverer and  collator  of  New  Testament  manuscripts, 
did  no  grouping.  Like  Mill,  and  many  others,  his 
labors  were  chiefly  valuable  as  affording  materials  for 
the  investigations  of  others.  Westcott  and  Hort  (1881) 
classified  all  known  authorities  into  four  groups,  called 
the  Syrian,  Alexandrian,  Neutral,  and  Western,*  on  the 
principle  that  similar  readings  imply  similar  origin,  and 
since  four  different  kinds  of  resemblance  were  found 
in  each  of  these  four  groups,  each  member  of  the 
group  must  be  related  to  the  other  as  common  descend- 
ants of  a  common  ancestor.  Thus  the  matter  was 
greatly  simplified,  and  instead  of  determining  the  spec- 
ial value  of  each  of  the  thousands  of  manuscript  de- 
scendants,  it   was   onlv    necessarv,    having  ascertained 


*  The  names  given  to  the  four  groups  or  types  of  text  are 
not  satisfactory.  For  instance,  there  are  manuscripts  in  the 
Syriac  language  which  do  not  resemble  and  therefore  do  not 
belong  to  the  so-called  Syrian  group,  and  there  are  manuscripts 
made  in  the  East  that  do  resemble  and  therefore  do  belong 
to  the  so-called  Western  group.  Efforts  to  rename  the  groups 
have  not  been  wholly  successful. 


THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA.  21 

the  value  of  the  four  manuscript  ancestors,  to  find  to 
which  of  them  each  individual  manuscript  descendant 
belonged,  and  its  own  value  would  thus  be  known. 
This  is  called  the  genealogical  method. 

One  of  these  groups,  the  Syrian,  the  latest,  and,  ac- 
cording to  Westcott  and  Hort,  the  least  reliable,  is 
practically  the  basis  of  our  Authorized  Version.  An- 
other, the  Neutral,  one  of  the  three  earlier  or  pre- 
Syrian  groups,  and  supposed  by  Westcott  and  Hort  to 
give  the  purest  text  of  the  three,  practically  corre- 
sponds with  our  Revised  Version. 

Though  serious  exceptions  have  been  taken  to  West- 
cott and  Hort's  methods  and  conclusions  of  late,  owing 
chiefly  to  new  evidence  and  learned  investigations  in 
connection  with  the  so-called  Western  group,  which 
Westcott  and  Hort  regarded  with  great  disfavor,  their 
system  is  still  the  standard  by  which  textual  critics  re- 
cord their  agreements  or  disagreements.  It  still  rep- 
resents the  best  working  theory  in  the  formation  of  a 
correct  text.  (Gillespie.) 

41.    Give    an    Outline    of    the    History    of    the    Higher 
Criticism. 

I.  Of  the  Old  Testament. 

The  modern  Higher  Criticism  dates  from  Spinoza 
(1632-1677),  who  denied  that  Moses  wrote  the  Penta- 
teuch and  made  Genesis-Kings  a  late  compilation, 
probably  by  Ezra.  Richard  Simon  (1638-1712),  a 
Romish  priest,  affirmed  that  although  Moses  wrote  the 
Pentateuch,  the  Hebrew  prophets  recast  it  into  its 
present  form.    Jean  Astruc  (1753),  a  profligate  French 


22  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

physician,  promulgated  the  theory  that  Moses  made 
use  in  Genesis  of  older  documents,  characterized  by 
different  divine  names.  This  idea  was  developed  by 
Eichhorn,  the  so-called  "Father  of  the  Higher  Criti- 
cism" (1782). 

This  divisive  principle  has  been  greatly  enlarged 
and  applied  to  other  Old  Testament  books  by  De  Wette, 
Ewald,  and  others. 

A  revolt  in  favor  of  the  older  views  was  led  by 
Hengstenberg  (1802-1869)  and  Keil  (1807-1888).  In 
1878  Wellhausen  applied  to  all  the  Old  Testament  lit- 
erature the  principles  of  evolution.  These  views  are 
still  widely  prevalent,  and  have  been  advocated  by 
Kuenen  (1828-1891),  Robertson  Smith  (1846- 1894), 
Driver,  and  many  others.  (Raven.) 

II.  Of  the  New  Testament. 

A  convenient  summary  of  this  history  is  that  of 
Zenos  (Elements  of  Higher  Criticism,  pp.  229,  et  seq.). 
Four  phases  are  indicated — 

1.  The  Deistic  Phase.  Denies  inspiration.  Advo- 
cates :  J.  S.  Semler.  J.  G.  Eichhorn,  Bretschneider.  and 
others.    Opposed  by  Kleuker,  Hug  and  others. 

2.  The  Mystic-Rationalistic.  ( Mediating.)  Would 
separate  the  religious  and  moral  in  the  Scriptures  from 
the  historical.  The  founder  of  this  school  was  Schlei- 
ermacher.  Tt  developed  into  wings,  the  Naturalistic 
being  advocated  by  De  Wette,  Credner,  and  others ;  the 
Evangelical  by  Hermann.  Olshausen,  and  Neander. 

3.  The  Tubingen.  ( Tendency  Criticism.)  This 
rested  on  the  Hegelian  theory  of  development,  through 


THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  23 

thesis,  antithesis,  synthesis,  or  action,  reaction,  compro- 
mise. The  Scriptures  are  the  resulting-  record  of  this 
conflict.  The  author  of  this  phase  was  Ferd.  Ch. 
Bauer.  He  had  many  followers  and  many  opponents. 
The  movement  lapsed  into  pure  rationalism  but  taught 
criticism  the  value  of  the  historic  method. 

4.  The  Scientific-Evolutionistic  Phase.  The  current 
phase. 

The  main  controversies  of  the  present  day  have  to 
do  with  the  sources  of  the  synoptic  gospels,  Acts  and 
Revelation,  the  genuineness  of  John  and  some  of  the 
epistles,  and  the  relations  between  the  teaching  of 
Jesus  and  that  of  the  apostles. 

The  destructive  school  is  represented  by  Schmiedel 
and  Van  Manen,  who  leave  but  a  few  shreds  of  the 
gospel  narrative  and  teachings  and  deny  the  Pauline 
authorship  of  the  epistles  usually  ascribed  to  him.  The 
Dutch  school  of  critics  has  been  conspicuously  radical 
in  its  treatment  of  the  New  Testament. 

Many  scholars  like  Harnack  and  Professor  Drum- 
mond,  while  rejecting  the  miraculous  and  supernatural 
elements,  have  confirmed  traditional  views  as  to  the 
authenticity  and  genuineness  of  the  books  of  the  New 
Testament. 

More  or  less  conservative  living  scholars  are  Bern- 
hard  Weiss  and  Theodore  Zahn,  Professor  William 
Sanday  and  Professor  W.  M.  Ramsay,  with  many 
other  British  and  American  Scholars. 

The  Higher  Criticism  in  both  the  Old  and  New  Tes- 
tament fields  has  to  rid  itself  of  much  that  is  arbitrary 


24  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

and  subjective,  not  to  say  purely  conjectural,  before  it 
can  claim  to  be  truly  scientific  and  rightfully  to  speak 
with  indisputable  authority. 

42.  What  is  the  Province  of  Biblical  Hermeneutics  ? 
It  treats  of  the  principles  on  which  Scripture  is  to  be 

explained. 

Note.     The  general  statement  of  these  principles  will 
be  made  in  other  lecture  rooms. 

43.  What  is  Grammatical  Interpretation? 

It  is  seeking  the  sense  of  Scripture  by  the  aid  of  phi- 
lology and  grammatical  criticism  simply. 

44.  What  is  Grammatico-Historical  Interpretation? 

It  is  seeking  the  sense  of  Scripture  by  the  aid  of 
grammatical  criticism,  and  Biblical  Archeology  in  its 
various  branches. 

45.  What  is  Allegorical  Interpretation? 

When  a  further  sense  than  that  which  is  literally 
conveyed  in  the  words  of  the  record,  is  sought,  the  in- 
terpretation is  called  allegorical. 

46.  What   gives  Hermeneutics  especial  Value   in  con- 

nection with  Biblical  Study? 

The  poetical,  symbolical,  or  national  character  of 
many  parts  of  the  Bible,  the  remote  age  in  which  it 
was  composed,  the  individual  matters  to  which  it 
alludes,  and  the  fulness  of  its  moral  and  spiritual  sig- 
nificance. 


THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA.  25 

47.    Outline  the  History  of  Interpretation. 

First  Period,  the  Patristic. 

The  first  exposition  of  the  Bible  was  entirely  practi- 
cal. The  acquaintance  of  the  Jews,  especially  of  Alex- 
andria, with  the  wisdom  of  the  Greeks,  led  them  to 
attempt  the  discovery  of  a  profound  Gnosis  beneath 
the  humble  guise  of  their  Scriptures.  This  was  the 
beginning  of  the  allegorical  interpretation,  of  which 
Origen  became  the  chief  exponent,  and  which,  even  in 
his  day  opposed  by  the  more  sober  school  of  Antioch, 
after  his  day,  diminished  in  its  prominence  but  did  not 
disappear,  existing  alongside  the  historico-theological 
interpretation,  even  in  such  a  writer  as  Augustine. 

Second  Period,  the  Medieval  or  Scholastic. 

In  the  close  of  the  patristic  period,  the  churchly,  or 
traditional  school  arose  and  became  the  generally  domi- 
nant school  throughout  the  scholastic  period,  aided  by 
the  prevailing  ignorance  of  the  Scriptures. 

Rabbinical  interpretation  of  the  Old  Testament  ex- 
panded into  an  extensive  literature.  The  revival  of 
interest  in  the  Hebrew,  and  reviving  knowledge  of  the 
Greek,  prepared  the  way  for  the  Reformation  period. 

Third  Period,  from  the  Reformation. 

Luther  looked  far  beneath  the  traditional  interpreta- 
tion, but  manifested  a  distinct  spiritualizing  tendency. 
Melancthon  and  Zwingli  were  aided  by  their  larger 
classical  learning.  Calvin  was  preeminently  keen  and 
precise,  and  his  pupil,  Beza,  was  a  worthy  follower. 

The  Lutheran  exegesis  soon  came  largely  under  the 
influence   of  confessional   teaching:.     That  of  the   Re- 


26  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

formed  was  exposed  to  the  same  danger  but  in  a  less 
degree,  while  the  Arminians  laid  especial  stress  upon 
the  grammatico-historical  principle. 

Rationalistic  (Neological)  exegesis  appeared,  seek- 
ing to  explain  out  of  the  Bible  its  miracles  and  mys- 
teries. Kant  endeavored  to  separate  theological  from 
ethical  interpretation.  The  rationalistic  school  became 
more  strictly  scientific,  and  against  this  the  orthodox 
party  were  led  to  point  out  the  underlying  sense  of 
Scripture,  not  by  ignoring  grammatical  and  historical 
facts  but  by  ascending  to  a  loftier  and  more  far-reach- 
ing point  of  view.    This  is  the  aim  of  that  party  to-day. 

48.    What  is  Exegesis? 

It  is  applied  hermeneutics.  It  is  the  art,  for  which 
hermeneutics  the  science,  lays  down  the  theory. 


Chapter  III. 
Historical  Theology. 

49.  What  is  Historical  Theology? 

It  is  the  record  of  the  use  made  by  the  church  in  the 
successive  periods  and  every  phase  of  its  life,  of  the 
products  of  exegetical  theology,  including  sacred  his- 
tory and  Bible  doctrine. 

50.  What  are  its  Chief  Divisions? 

a.  In  the  order  of  time,  into — 
i.  Sacred  History. 

2.  The  History  of  the  Christian  Church. 

b.  With  respect  to  the  nature  of  its  contents,  into — 
i.  The  History  of  the  Church's  Life. 

2.  The  History  of  the  Church's  Thought. 

51.  What  does  Sacred  History  include? 

a.  As  to  the  Life  of  the  Church,  it  includes — 

i.  The  History  of  the  Old  Testament  Church. 

2.  The  Life  of  Christ. 

3.  The  History  of  the   Founding  of  the  Christian 

Church  by  the  Apostles. 

b.  As  to  the  Thought  of  the  Church,  it  includes — 
Biblical  Theology. 

52.  What  then  is  the  Definition  of  Sacred  History? 

It  is  the  history  of  the  life,  Leader,  and  thought  of 
the  church  in  both  dispensations,  as  far  as  it  may  be 
derived  from  inspired  sources. 


28  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

53.  What  are  the  chief  Subdivisions  of  the  History  of 

the  Old  Testament  Church? 

i.  Preparatory  Period.     Adam  to  Abraham. 

2.  Patriarchal  Period.     Abraham  to  Moses. 

3.  Theocratic  Period.     Moses  to  Samuel. 

4.  Development  Period.     Samuel  to  the  Exile. 

5.  Period  of  the  Decline.     Exile  to  the  Incarnation. 

54.  What  are  the  Sources  of  this  History? 

I.  The  canonical  books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

II.  Secondary  Sources — 

1.  The  Old  Testament  x\pocrypha. 

2.  Josephus. 

3.  Monumental  Sources.     Egypt,  Babylon,  Assyria, 

Palestine. 

4.  Heathen  writers;  e.  g.,  Herodotus  and  Tacitus. 

5.  Early  Christian  writers,  especially  Eusebius. 

55.  What   is   to   be   said   of   the   life   of   Christ   as   a 

Department  of  Sacred  History? 

It  is  the  central  glory  of  it  all.  It  is  the  consumma- 
tion of  the  history  of  the  Old  Testament  church;  the 
head  of  the  New  Testament  church  history;  the  abid- 
ing model  of  the  church's  life;  the  soul  of  its  apolo- 
getics, dogmatics,  ethics,  and  practical  theology. 

56.  Whence  is  it  derived,  and  how  far  is  it  properly 

Church  History? 

It  results  from  an  exegesis  of  the  Gospels,  which  do 
not  contain  exact  and  complete  biography,  but  only 
memorabilia  of  the  life;  and  it  is  church  history,  only 
in  so  far  as  the  human  life  of  the  Christ  is  concerned. 


THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  29 

57.  Outline  the  History  of  this  Department  of  Sacred 

History. 

Biographical  effort  began  in  the  early  centuries,  with 
an  external  collocation  of  sources. 

The  productions  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  uncritical, 
and  legendary,  finding  their  extreme  illustration  in  the 
passion-plays. 

After  the  Reformation,  the  dogmatic  element  pre- 
dominated for  a  time.  Then  the  divine  side  of  Jesus' 
life  absorbed  attention. 

The  appearance  of  the  Wolfenbuttel  fragments  led  to 
a  more  critical  treatment.  Rationalism  reduced  biog- 
raphy almost  to  the  level  of  natural  history  and  to  par- 
allels between  the  life  of  Christ  and  other  lives ;  e.  g., 
that  of  Socrates.  Strauss  in  Germany  and  Renan  in 
France  sought  to  reduce  the  Gospel  narratives  to  myth 
and  romance. 

These  negative  and  destructive  and  biased  efforts 
led  to  the  development  of  a  positive  and  critical  and 
sound  biography;  e.  g.,  Hase,  Keim,  Pressense,  Geikie, 
Edersheim,  etc.,  which  embraces  now  scores  of  writers. 

58.  Where  do  we  find  the  Materials  for  the  History  of 

the  Founding  of  the  Christian  Church? 

i.  Chiefly  in  the  book  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles, 
although  the  record  of  the  call  to  discipleship,  the 
glimpses  given  of  the  individual  character  of  the  disci- 
ples, and  the  instruction  given  them  by  the  Christ,  con- 
tained in  the  four  Gospels,  and  the  scattered  statements 
of  their  efforts  and  the  results  found  in  the  Epistles  and 
the  Apocalypse,  belong  to  this  history. 


30  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

2.  Early  Christian  tradition,  though  this  source  is 
one  of  exceedingly  doubtful  value. 

59.  What  is  Biblical  Theology? 

It  investigates  the  teaching  of  each  writer  and  of 
each  book  as  to  individual  doctrines,  in  the  historical 
order  of  these  teachings. 

60.  What  is  the  Aim  of  Biblical  Theology? 

It  aims  to  exhibit  the  thought  of  the  church,  within 
the  limits  of  sacred  history  as  recorded  in  Scripture; 
or  in  other  words,  to  represent  the  religious  ideas  and 
doctrines  which  are  contained  in  the  Bible,  in  the  his- 
torical order  of  their  communication  and  development. 

Note.  Biblical  theology  is  placed  somewhat  arbi- 
trarily in  historical  theology  on  account  of  the  essential 
character  of  its  historical  element.  On  account  of  its 
large  exegetical  element  many  encyclopedists  treat  it 
as  a  department  of  exegetical  theology  while  its  vital 
relationship  to   systematic  theology  is  also  obvious. 

61.  Upon  what  does  Biblical  Theology  rest? 

As  a  historical  science,  Biblical  theology  rests  on  the 
results  of  a  grammatico-historical  exegesis,  but  it  must 
view  the  Old  Testament  in  the  light  of  the  completed 
revelation  of  God  in  Christ,  for  which  it  formed  the 
preparation  ; — must  show  how  God's  saving  purpose, 
fulfilled  in  Christ,  moved  through  the  preliminary 
stages  of  the  history  of  the  revelation. 

62.  What  is  the  best  Division  of  the  Biblical  Theology 

of  the  Old  Testament? 

That  of  Oehler;  viz., 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  31 

Part  I.    Mosaism. 

i.  The  history  of  revelation  from  the  creation  to  the 
occupation  of  Canaan. 

2.  The  doctrines  and  ordinances  of  Mosaism. 

Part  II.     Prophetism. 

i.  The  development  of  the  theocracy  from  the  death 
of  Joshua  to  the  close  of  the  Old  Testament  revelation. 

2.  The  theology  of  prophetism. 

Part  III.    Old  Testament  wisdom. 

63.  What  is  the  usual  Division  of  the  Biblical  Theology 

of  the  New  Testament? 

i.  The  teaching  of  Jesus. 

2.  The  Petrine  type  of  doctrine.  Acts,  i  and  2  Peter, 
James,  Jude. 

3.  Paulinism. 

4.  The  theology  of  John. 

(We  must  not  forget,  however,  that  beneath  all 
these  forms  lies  the  unity  of  the  Revelation  of  Salva- 
tion ;  that  they  are  but  slightly  discriminated  sides  of 
the  one  great  system  of  truth,  mutually  involving  and 
interpreting  each  other.) 

64.  Outline  the  History  of  Biblical  Theology. 

The  use  of  proof  texts,  constituting  the  genesis  of 
Biblical  theology,  is  as  old  as  theology  itself,  and  so 
dates  back  to  the  Fathers. 

Retrogression  rather  than  progress  even  in  this  use, 
characterized  the  scholastic  (Medieval)  period. 

The  Reformation  revived  this  use  but  still  in  connec- 
tion with  ecclesiastical   dogmatics. 


32  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Expositions  of  texts  and  passages  began  appearing 
toward  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  pietistic  movement  gave  a  new  impulse  to  the 
nascent  discipline,  although  in  a  practical  rather  than  a 
scientific  direction. 

Its  present  name  came  into  use  in  the  historic  sense, 
in  the  eighteenth  century. 

Rationalism  developed  the  scientific  form,  in  which 
the  supra-naturalists  have  since  greatly  developed  the 
science  itself. 

The  comprehensive  task  of  showing  the  historical 
nexus  between  the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  point  by 
point  along  the  whole  range  of  Scriptural  doctrines  yet 
remains  largely  to  be  accomplished. 

65.  With  what  does  Church  History  have  to  deal? 
With  the  church  of  the  New  Testament  dispensation 

in  its  aspect  as  the  visible  church  as  over  against  the 
invisible  church,  although  the  life  of  the  latter  is  ever 
acting  most  powerfully  upon  the  former ;  and  with  cer- 
tain other  sciences  auxiliary  to  church  history. 

66.  What  are  the  possible  Methods  of  the  Division  of 

Church  History? 

1.  According  to  the  successive  centuries  of  the 
church's  life.  (Formerly  used,  but  now  generally 
abandoned.) 

2.  According  to  great  epochs,  (e.  g.,  Conversion  of 
Constantine,  Overthrow  of  Roman  Empire,  the  Re- 
formation, etc.) 

3.  According  to  topics,  (e.  g..  Extension.  Persecu- 
tions, Cultus,  etc.) 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  33 

4.  Along  national  lines. 

5.  Since  the  Reformation  along  denominational  lines. 

Note.  Of  these,  probably  the  preferable  is  the 
division  according  to  epochs,  which  also  keeps  in  view 
subordinately  the  last  three  methods. 

67.    Outline  the  History  of  Church  History. 

The  first  work  extant  is  that  of  Eusebius  (324),  who, 
however,  availed  himself  of  the  labors  of  Hegesippus 
(about  150). 

He  was  followed  by  Socrates,  Theodoret,  and  others 
in  his  own  century,  by  Philostorgius  in  the  fifth  century, 
and  Theodorus  and  Evagrius  in  the  sixth. 

The  Latin  church  did  less  than  the  Greek.  Eusebius 
was  translated  by  Rufinus.  The  greatest  names  are 
those  of  Gregory  of  Tours  (595),  the  Venerable  Bede, 
of  England  (735),  and  Adam  of  Bremen  (1076), 
(Scandinavian  church  history).  Uncritical  martyrolo- 
gists  and  legend  writers  are  numerous. 

After  the  doctrinal  storms  following  the  Reformation 
had  in  part  been  stilled,  a  number  of  Lutheran  theo- 
logians under  the  lead  of  Matthias  Flacius  (Illyricus) 
I1 575)  undertook  a  diffuse  church  history  arranged  by 
centuries  and  also  by  rubrics.  (The  Magdeburg  Cen- 
turies.) It  was  polemical  with  reference  to  the  errors 
of  Rome,  and  so  called  forth  the  "Annates  Ecclesias- 
tics" of  Baronius  (1607).  The  work  of  Hottinger 
(1667)  is  the  Reformed  Church  counterpart  of  these 
great  works. 

Mosheim  (1755)  rescued  church  history  from  the 
denominational  uses  to  which  it  had  been  put  since  the 


34  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Reformation  and   gave  it  standing  as  an   independent 
science. 

Rationalism  tended  to  reduce  it  to  a  history  of  human 
folly. 

Neander,  the  father  of  modern  church  history 
(1850).  sought  to  make  it  again  a  history  of  the  dem- 
onstration of  the  divine  power  in  Christianity.  Hase 
followed  with  a  more  authentic  portrayal  of  its  external 
features. 

Modern    writers    are    Kurtz     (Lutheran),    Schleier- 
macher  (brilliant  sketch),  Bauer  (philosophical),  Mil- 
man,    Schaff,   Fisher,    Woodbridge,   Moeller,    Sheldon, 
and  Newman. 
68.    What  are  the  Sciences  auxiliary  to  Church  History  ? 

They  are:     I.  Material.     II.  Instrumental. 

I.  Material. 

1.  General  history  of  the  world,  particularly  as  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  religion,  philosophy,  the  sci- 
ences, and  of  art. 

2.  The  geography  of  the  church. 

3.  The  chronology  of  the  church. 
II.  Instrumental. 

1.  Acquaintance  with  the  languages  necessary  for  the 
study  of  sources.  (Ecclesiastical  philology.  Ecclesi- 
astical Greek  and  Latin  especially.  All  languages 
eventually.) 

2.  The  antiquarian  skill  needed  in  judging  of  the 
value  of  sources,  monuments,  and  documents.  (Church 
diplomatics.  Bulls,  briefs,  charters,  patents,  coins, 
seals,  heraldry,  etc.) 


WIIHHIIiMI 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  35 


69 


What  special  Divisions  of  Church  History  connect 
it  with  Systematic  Theology? 

1.  History  of  doctrine. 

2.  Patrology. 

3.  Symbolics. 

70.  What  is  the  province  of  the  History  of  Doctrine  ? 

'the  scientific  delineation  of  the  gradual  unfolding, 
establishment,  and  development  of  the  Christian  faith,' 
in  its  several  dogmas,  and  in  its  systems  of  dogmas.  It 
is  the  history  of  the  thought  of  the  church  subsequent 
to  the  close  of  Biblical  Theology. 

71.  What  is  Patrology? 

That  part  of  historical  theology  which  deals  with  a 
more  accurate  acquaintance  with  the  lives,  the  writings, 
and  the  doctrines  of  the  great  teachers  and  leaders  of 
the  early  church. 

Note  1.  Gregory  the  Great  (604)  in  the  West,  and 
John  of  Damascus  (754)  in  the  East,  are  considered 
the  last  of  the  Fathers  by  Protestants.  Roman  Cath- 
olics carry  the  series  down  to  the  thirteenth  century, 
including  the  Doctors,  who  were  ecclesiastical  teachers 
rather  than  leaders. 

Note  2.  Patristics  is  a  branch  of  parrolcgy,  and 
has  to  do  only  with  the  writings  of  the  Fathers,  and 
with  these  only  in  so  far  as  they  contribute  to  the  'body 
of  Christian  doctrine. 

Note  3.  Patrology  is  a  fertile  field  for  the  student 
and  preacher. 

72.    What  is  Symbolics? 

The  science  of  the  rise,  the  nature,  and  the  contents 
of  the  public  and  formal  confessions  of  the  church. 


Chapter  IV. 
Systematic  Theology. 

73.  What  is  Systematic  Theology? 

Systematic  Theology  is  the  systematic  and  connected 
presentation  of  Christian  doctrine  in  its  relation  both  to 
faith  and  morals. 

74.  On  what  Grounds  does  Christian  Doctrine  demand 

Systematic  Construction  ? 

i.  The  organizing  instinct  of  the  human  mind.  The- 
ology is  a  rational  necessity. 

2.  The  fact  that  a  truth  becomes  complete  in  its  prac- 
tical significance  and  power,  only  when  comprehended 
in  its  relations  and  proportion  t6  other  truths. 

3.  The  importance  to  the  preacher  of  definite  and 
just  views  of  doctrine.  Without  these  he  cannot  suc- 
cessfully discharge  the  teaching  function  which  makes 
so  large  and  so  vital  a  part  of  his  work. 

4.  On  the  direct  and  indirect  injunctions  of  the 
Scriptures.  John  v.  39;  1  Cor.  ii.  13;  Col.  i.  27; 
2  Tim.  iv.  2;  Matt.  xiii.  52;  Eph.  iv.  11 ;  I  Tim.  iii.  2; 
2  Tim.  ii.  15;  Titus  i.  9;  the  entire  Epistle  to  the 
Romans. 

75.  What    are   the    main    Subdivisions    of    Systematic 

Theology  ? 

1.  Apologetics. 

2.  Dogmatics. 

3.  Ethics. 

36 


THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  37 

4.  Polemics. 

5.  Irenics. 

Note.  In  the  instruction  of  this  room,  apolgetics, 
polemics,  irenics,  and  dogmatics  will  be  treated  in  con- 
nection with  each  other. 

76.  What  is  Apologetics? 

Apologetics  is  the  defense  of  Christianity  as  the  only 
true  religion,  against  all  Non-Christian  systems  of  faith 
and  against  positive  infidelity. 

77.  Outline  the  History  of  Apologetics. 
First  Period,  the  Patristic. 

Apologetics  begins  in  the  defense  made  by  the  apos- 
tles before  judicial  tribunals. 

It  soon  became  offensive  as  well  as  defensive.  The 
earliest  apologists  represented  heathenism  in  its  empti- 
ness, Judaism  in  its  insufficiency,  and  Christianity  in  its 
greatness  and  unique  character. 

The  first  apologies  by  Aristides,  excepting  frag- 
ments, and  by  Quadratus,  are  lost.  So  also  are  those 
of  Melito,  Miltiades,  and  Claudius  Apollinaris,  save  as 
fragments  are  quoted  in  Eusebius.  The  oldest,  com- 
plete, in  our  possession,  are  two  by  Justin  Martyr  (mid- 
dle of  second  century  V  Then  followed  Tatian,  Athen- 
agoras,  Theophilus  of  Antioch,  Hermas,  Origen,  and 
Clement  among  the  Greeks ;  and  among  the  Latins, 
Tertullian,  Minucius  Felix,  Cyprian,  Arnobius,  and 
Lactantius. 

Athanasius  and  Cyril  of  Alexandria  also  wrote 
apologetic  works  and  Augustine  the  great  work,  "The 


38  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

City  of  God,"  at  once  an  apology  and  a  system  of  doc- 
trine. 

Second  Period,  the  Medieval. 

Apologies  in  this  period  were  directed  as  in  the  first 
one,  against  Judaism  and  paganism,  and  in  addition, 
against  Mohammedanism  and  philosophic  skepticism. 
The  chief  writers  were  Agobard  of  Lyons  (vs.  Jews), 
Abelard,  Aquinas,   Marcilius  Ficinus,  and  Savonarola. 

Third  Period,  from  the  Reformation. 

Polemics  for  a  time  almost  absorbed  the  controversial 
energies  of  the  church. 

Grotius,  however,  wrote  for  mariners  who  came  in 
contact  with  Non-Christian  peoples,  and  Limborch  fol- 
lowed him. 

The  rise  of  free-thinkers  in  England  called  forth 
apologies  from  Locke,  Samuel  Clarke,  Lardner,  Addi- 
son, Stackhouse,  and  Butler. 

Pascal,  Astie,  Havet,  and  Lacordaire  have  been  the 
principal  French  Catholic  apologists  against  skepticism. 
In  the  Reformed  Church,  Abbadie,  Jacquelot,  and  G. 
A.  Turretin  performed  the  same  task. 

German  apologists  followed  the  English  until  the 
appearance  of  the  Wolfenbuttel  fragments  in  1777. 
These  drew  forth  apologies  from  both  orthodox  and 
latitudinarian  authors. 

The  rise  of  rationalism  within  the  church  has  again 
made  polemics  preeminent  in  its  controversial  life. 

Modern  apologies  are  being  directed  against  material- 
ism, agnosticism,  and  pantheism,  largely.  Some  writers 
are  Christlieb.  Orr,  Iverach,  A.  B.  Bruce,  Kaftan. 
Beattie,  etc. 


THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  39 

Note.  Most  apologies  in  all  these  periods'  have  been 
called  into  being  by  temporary  "and  practical  conditions, 
rather  than  by  scientific  considerations.  The  attempt 
to  establish  apologetics  r>pon  a  scientific  basis  is  now 
being  made,  but  its  completion  has  by  no  means  been 
reached. 

78.  What  is  Polemics? 

Polemics  is  the  defense  of  one  system  of  Christian 
doctrine  against  all  other  conflicting  systems. 

79.  Define  Irenics. 

Irenics  is  the  scientific  treatment  of  the  points  of 
agreement  in  the  various  systems  and  confessions. 

80.  Define  Dogmatics. 

Dogmatic  theology  combines  the  material  obtained 
from  exegesis  and  history  into  an  organized  form,  and 
presents  the  sum  total  of  Christian  faith  in  its  relation 
to  the  facts  of  revelation.     It  is  a  progressive  science. 

81.  What  have  been  the  chief  Methods  employed  in 

Dogmatic  Theology? 
i.  The    topical, — employing   a    series   of   theological 
heads,  or  loci  communes.     This  is  the  earliest  and  the 
traditional. 

2.  The  synthetic, — which  starts  with  certain  fixed 
principles  revealed  in  the  Scriptures,  and  gathers  all 
other  truths  around  them. 

3.  The  analytic. 

4.  The  allegorical. 

Note  1.  The  last  two  have  only  occasionally  ap- 
peared. 

Note  2.  The  first,  modified  by  the  second,  is  the 
method  of  Dr.  Woodbridge's  Analysis. 


40  THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

82.  What  are  usually  accepted  as  the  Chief  Divisions 

of  Dogmatic  Theology? 

i.  Theology  proper. 

2.  Anthropology. 

3.  Soteriology. 

4.  Ecclesiology. 

5.  Eschatology. 

Note  1.  Apologetics  is  sometimes  considered  as  an 
independent  and  introductory  division  of  dogmatics. 

Note  2.  Bibliology,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  Bible, 
Christology,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  person  of  Christ, 
and  Pneumatology,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  Holy  Spirit, 
are   sometimes  added  to  the  above. 

83.  What  is  Theology  Proper? 

It  is  that  department  of  dogmatic  theology  which 
treats  of  all  that  pertains  to  the  being  and  attributes  of 
God, — the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  and  the  connection 
of  God  with  the  works  of  creation  and  providence. 
(Under  creation  are  also  usually  considered  the  sub- 
jects of  angelology  and  demonology.) 

84.  What  is  Anthropology? 

This  treats  of  the  origin  and  nature  of  man,  his 
original  state  and  probation,  the  fall,  the  nature  of  sin, 
and  the  effect  of  Adam's  sin  upon  himself  and  upon  his 
posterity. 

Note.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  word  an- 
thropology is  used  outside  of  theology,  in  a  similar 
but  much  broader  sense. 


THEOLOGICAL    ENCYCLOPEDIA.  41 

85.  What  is  Soteriology? 

It  treats  of  the  doctrine  of  the  person  and  work  of 
Jesus  Christ,  the  application  of  redemption  and  the 
means  of  grace. 

86.  What  is  Ecclesiology  ? 

It  treats  of  the  true  idea  and  nature  of  the  church,  its 
organization  and  its  prerogative. 

87.  What  is  Eschatology  ? 

It  treats  of  the  state  of  the  soul  after  death,  the  res- 
urrection of  the  body,  the  second  advent,  the  general 
judgment,  the  end  of  the  world,  and  the  final  destiny 
of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked. 

88.  Outline  the  History  of  Dogmatics. 
First  Period,  the  Patristic. 

Its  earliest  beginnings  are  found  in  the  symbols  and 
confessions  of  faith. 

Origen  in  his  work  on  Principles  sketched  a  system. 
Augustine  wrote  his  Doctrine  and  Kingdom  of  God. 
Others  wrote  similar  works,  or  catechetical  approaches 
to  a  system.  John  of  Damascus  was  the  first  to  con- 
struct a  dogmatics  in  the  strict  sense. 

The  Greek  Fathers  discussed  the  doctrines  of  the 
Being  of  God  and  of  the  Person  of  Christ ;  Augustine 
the  doctrines  of  the  Decrees  and  of  the  Church. 

Second  Period,  the  Medieval. 

The  two  tendencies  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  the 
complementary  ones,  the  scholastic  and  the  mystical, 
and  among  the  multitudes  of  writers  previous  to  the 


42  THEOLOGICAL  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Crusades,  the  chief  were  Anselm,  Roscellin,  Abelard, 
the  St.  Victors,  and  Peter  Lombard  (1164),  who  first 
prepared  a  system  according  to  established  rules,  and 
whose  followers  were  called  Scntentiari. 

After  the  Crusades  the  scholastic  development  was 
more  marked  under  the  leadership  of  Alexander  Hales 
( 1245),  Albertus  Magnus  ( 1280),  and  Thomas  Aquinas 
(1274).  The  Thomists  were  opposed  by  a  development 
of  mysticism  under  the  lead  of  Bonaventura  (1274), 
and  also  by  Duns  Scotus  (1308))  of  the  dialectic 
school. 

The  discussions  of  this  period  were  largely  in  the 
sphere  of  Anthropology. 

Third  Period,  from  the  Reformation. 

a.  Continental. 

The  cultivation  of  humanistic  studies  before  the  Ref- 
ormation gave  a  many  sided  spirit  to  dogmatics,  but 
left  it  without  fixed  principles. 

Its  regeneration  began  in  the  Reformation  period 
with  Melancthon,  who  laid  the  foundation  of  Evangeli- 
cal dogmatics,  his  counterpart  in  the  Reformed  Church 
being  John  Calvin. 

The  continental  dogmatics  of  subsequent  periods,  not 
altogether  unaffected  by  the  old  scholastic  and  mystical 
tendencies,  has  been  also  influenced  largely  by  the 
rationalistic  school,  by  the  Arminian  movement,  and 
by  the  teaching  of  Schleiermacher,  who,  rejecting  his- 
torical authority  and  philosophic  speculation  entirely, 
fell  back  upon  the  so-called  consciousness  of  the  church 
as  a  basis.    The  school  of  Ritschl  developed  in  the  lat- 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  43 

ter  half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Out  of  these  last 
two  movements  certain  influences  are  flowing-  and, 
mingling,  rather  than  coalescing,  with  the  influence  of 
the  evolutionary  philosophy  and  that  of  the  destructive 
schools  of  criticism,  have  developed  what  is  called 
Modern  Theology,  a  transitional  and  still  fluent,  and 
by  no  means  coordinated  or  fused  body  of  thought. 

b.  Scotland,  England,  and  America. 

In  Scotland,  Calvin's  Institutes  has  dominated  dog- 
matics until  very  recently. 

In  England,  Pearson's  commentary  on  the  so-called 
Apostles'  Creed,  and  Burnet's  on  the  Thirty-nine  Arti- 
cles have  largely  supplied  the  dogmatical  treatment  of 
the  Established  Church,  while  Watson  is  the  great 
Wesleyan  authority. 

The  dogmatics  of  our  own  country  has  largely  been 
moulded  after  that  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 

Dwight  and  Stearns  among  the  Congregationalists, 
Hodge  and  Shedd  among  Presbyterians,  Raymond  and 
Miley  among  the  Methodists,  and  Strong  and  Clarke 
among  the  Baptists,  indicate  our  ability  and  disposition 
to  lean  no  longer  upon  continental  authorities  for  doc- 
trinal statement. 

89.    Define  Ethics,  and  Christian  Ethics. 

Ethics  is  the  science  of  morals.  Christian  ethics  is 
the  science  of  morals  conditioned  by  Christianity.  It 
describes  the  theory  of  the  moral  life  as  it  should  find 
expression  in  a  Christian  feeling,  which  is  produced  by 
a  living  faith,  and  approves  itself  in  a  Christian  life. 


44  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

90.  How  does  Christian  Ethics  stand  related  to  Philo- 

sophical Ethics? 

It  differs  from  the  latter  with  regard  to  its  scientific 
form,  its  starting-  point  and  motives ;  but  the  substance 
of  the  two  can  never  be  contradictory. 

91.  What  is  the  Basis  of  Christian  Ethics? 

The  life  of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  actualizing-  and 
exemplifying  the  ethical  precepts  of  revelation. 

92.  What  is  the  Division  of  Christian  Ethics? 
Into  general  and  special. 

Note.     This  division  is  only  relative,  however. 

93.  What  is  General  Ethics? 

This  is  concerned  with  settling  the  moral  principle, 
or  the  objects  and  motives  of  moral  action,  and  hence 
also  with  the  investigation  of  man's  moral  nature  and 
capacities,  the  correct  bounding  of  the  ideas  of  good 
and  evil,  of  sin  and  imputation,  of  grace  and  freedom. 

94.  What  is  Special  Ethics? 

This  concerns  particular  manifestations  and  expres- 
sions of  the  moral  life  in  given  circumstances,  and  in- 
cludes the  particular  doctrines  of  virtue  and  of  duty. 

95.  What  is  Casuistry? 

Casuistry,  sometimes  treated  improperly  as  a  sep- 
arate branch  of  ethics,  has  then  to  do  with  cases  in 
which  duties  come  into  conflict  with  each  other. 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  45 

96.    Outline  the  History  of  Christian  Ethics. 

First  Period,  the  Patristic. 

The  preliminary  efforts  were  made  by  the  apostolic 
fathers  and  apologists,  especially  Clement  of  Rome  and 
the  author  of  The  Shepherd  of  Hernias.  Clement  of 
Alexandria,  Tertullian  to  a  large  degree,  Cyprian,  all 
the  great  patristic  preachers,  and  Ambrose,  Augustine, 
and  Jerome,  developed  the  science. 

Second  Period,  the  Medieval. 

Aristotle  with  his  catalogue  of  specific  virtues  con- 
trolled the  earlier  half  of  this  period.  Casuistry  devel- 
oped. The  forerunners  of  the  Reformation,  such  as 
Wycliffe  and  Huss,  and  the  awakening  of  classical 
studies,  revived  interest  in  ethics  in  its  relation  to  the 
Christian  life. 

Note.  The  four  cardinal  virtues  as  taught  by  Plato 
and  again  by  Aristotle  were  wisdom,  justice,  courage, 
and  temperance.  Aristotle  added  to  these  liberality 
(becoming  magnificence  when  large  expenditure  was 
possible),  laudable  ambition,  gentleness,  friendliness, 
truthfulness,  and  decorous  wit. 

Third  Period,  from  the  Reformation. 

Zwingli  and  Luther,  in  sermons,  etc.,  gave  new  force 
to  ethical  teaching.  Melancthon  accorded  ethics  scien- 
tific treatment.  Calvin  included  it  in  theology,  under 
the  head  of  the  doctrine  of  regeneration.  Danaeus  first 
treated  it  as  a  distinct  theological  department.  The 
authors  of  the  Heidelberg  Catechism  gave  it  great 
prominence. 

The  Cartesian  philosophy  gave  it  a  distinct  impetus. 


46  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

Arminianism  gave  it  special  emphasis.  The  Pietist  and 
Methodist  movements  stimulated  and  purified  it,  while 
Jesuitism  degraded  it.  Kant  clarified  it  from  eudae- 
monism,  but  transformed  it  into  a  species  of  moral 
arithmetic.     Rothe  uplifted  it. 

Martensen,  Wuttke  and  Janet  are  among  the  modern 
authorities. 

The  English  and  American  literature  on  this  subject 
is  meagre,  in  contrast  with  the  treatment  of  philosophi- 
cal ethics,  and  in  striking  contrast  with  the  large  prac- 
tical development  of  ethics  in  English  and  American 
life. 


Chapter  V. 

Brief  Outline  of  the  Encyclopedia  of  Practical 
Theology. 

97.  What  is  Practical  Theology? 

It  is  the  art  of  applying  to  church  life,  the  results  of 
exegetical,  historical,  and  systematic  theology. 

It  is  that  department  of  theology  which  treats  of  the 
activity  of  the  church,  as  this  activity  is  exercised  by 
the  church  as  a  whole,  or  by  individual  members  and 
representatives  acting  for  the  church. 

98.  What  are  its  Chief  Divisions? 

i.  Homiletics. 
2.  Liturgies. 


THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA.  47 

3.  Poimenics. 

4.  Archagics. 

5.  Pedagogy. 

6.  Sociology. 

7.  The  English  Bible. 

99.  What  is  Homiletics  ? 

It  is  that  branch  of  Practical  Theology  which  treats 
of  the  preparation  and  delivery  of  sermons.  It  is  the 
science  of  which  Preaching  is  the  art. 

100.  What  is  Liturgies? 

It  is  that  branch  of  Practical  Theology  which  treats 
of  the  nature,  spirit  and  conduct  of  the  public  worship 
of  God. 

101.  What  is  Poimenics? 

It  is  that  branch  of  Practical  Theology  which  treats 
of  the  nature,  the  duties  and  the  privileges  of  the  pas- 
toral office. 

102.  What  is  Archagics? 

It  is  that  department  of  Practical  Theology  which 
treats  of  the  organizing  and  leadership  of  the  Church 
in  her  task  of  conquering  the  world  for  Christ. 

103.  What  is  Pedagogy? 

Pedagogy  is  the  science  of  teaching.  In  Practical 
Theology  it  is  that  department  thereof  which  has  to  do 
with  teaching  Christian  truth. 


48  THEOLOGICAL   ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

104.  What  is  Sociology? 

Sociology  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  origin, 
nature,  history,  laws,  forces  and  institutions  of  society. 
Within  the  limits  of  Practical  Theology  it  is  that  de- 
partment thereof  which  deals  with  the  study  of  the 
field,  in  its  largest  aspects,  in  which  Christian  effort  is 
to  be  expended. 

105.  What  is  the  Relationship  of   the    Study    of    the 

English  Bible  to  Practical  Theology? 

It  is  that  department  of  Practical  Theology  which 
teaches  actual  familiarity  with  the  chief  instrument  the 
Christian  and  the  Church  are  ever  to  rely  upon  for 
success  in  English-speaking  fields. 


Chapter  VI. 

Each  student  will  fill  out  this  chapter  by  making  a 
complete  chart  of  all  the  contents  of  the  foregoing  out- 
line sketch  of  Theological  Encyclopedia. 


DATE  DUE 

Demco,  Inc.  38-293 

